Downward inclination of a wing from the root to the tip.

Induced drag and its wing tip vortices are a direct consequence of the creation of lift by the wing.

Since the Coefficient of Lift is large when the Angle of Attack is large, induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the speed whereas all other drag is directly proportional to the square of the speed.

The effect of this is that induced drag is relatively unimportant at high speed in the cruise and descent where it probably represents less than 10% of total drag. In the climb, it is more important representing at least 20% of total drag. At slow speeds just after take off and in the initial climb, it is of maximum importance and may produce as much as 70% of total drag.

Finally, when looking at the potential strength of wing tip vortices, all this theory on induced drag must be moderated by the effect of aircraft weight. Induced drag will always increase with aircraft weight.

IRS / GPS / VOR / DME

Yes.

There are permanent jet streams in the...

Mcrit

-15°C

because:

-2°C per 1000 feet gives -30°C.

ISA: 15°C at sea level - 30°C = -15°C at FL150

662 kts

Local speed of sound = 39 x √(Temperature in Kelvin)

15°C in Kelvin is (15 + 273) = 288

So the local speed of sound = 39 x √288 = 662 kts

Vref = 1.3 x Vs0 (stall speed in the landing configuration).

When an aircraft climbs, the static pressure in the instrument case decreases, which allows the enclosed capsule to expand.

This in turn moves the needle on the instrument to indicate a corresponding altitude.

During descent, the opposite function applies.

Altimeter errors can originate and vary from:

Instrument Pressure Time-lag Barometric Density Temperature Blocked static port

For every 1kg of air passing through the combustion chamber, 11kg of air pass bypass the combustion chamber.